Highlighting Black Students at Colorado Law, 1896 - 1968

February is Black History Month. At Colorado Law, we are reflecting on nearly 130 years of our Black students making their mark on our law school and uplifting others within the wider community.

The legacy of Black students who have come before continues to shape the experiences of current law students in profound ways. As we strive to broaden representation and foster a more welcoming and equitable environment within the law school and throughout the wider legal profession, the contributions and stories of these alumni provide both inspiration and a foundation for ongoing progress.

Law schools in the United States have, like some other institutions, historically reinforced structural inequalities that have disadvantaged certain groups, particularly Black men. This meant that in the early years of law schools, there were relatively few Black law students. The earliest known Black law school applicant, John Mercer Langston, applied to a proprietary law school in Ballspa, New York, in 1850. He was rejected for admission, so Langston pursued apprenticeship to become an attorney. Nearly 30 years later, Harvard Law School admitted the first known university-trained Black lawyer, George Lewis Ruffin, in 1868.1 Howard University, a historically Black University, opened its law school a year later;2 and the University of South Carolina and University of Michigan Law Schools admitted Black students in the 1870s.3 While Black colleges and universities opened law schools and expanded educational access for aspiring Black lawyers, the majority of predominantly white institutions did not admit Black students for almost 100 years.4

The University of Colorado Law School is a rare exception, enrolling at least eight Black students from its opening in 1892 to the start of its Affirmative Action program in 1968.

The 51Թ opened in 1877 with a somewhat gender-diverse, though not racially diverse, student body.5 Many of the university’s earliest alumni showed a penchant for legal studies, earning degrees first in Colorado before pursuing law degrees in the east.6 In 1892, the University of Colorado Law School opened its doors.7 The University of Colorado has never had an official system or policy of segregation regarding race or ethnicity,8 which meant that its law school also had no racial or ethnic discrimination policy either.

The absence of a formal policy of segregation allowed these five Black men and one Black woman to attend the University of Colorado Law School decades before most other predominantly white institutions opened their doors to Black students in the late 1960s,9 due to gains made during the Civil Rights Movement. Each of these six students were forerunners and, in their own ways, pivotal to the law school, the university, the state of Colorado, the Black community, and American society at large. Here are highlights of their stories and the times in which they lived.

Franklin L. Anderson (ex 1899)

Only four years after the University of Colorado Law School’s 1892 opening, Franklin LaVeale Anderson (ex 1899) enrolled at the law school in 1896. He is believed to be the first Black student to enroll at the 51Թ and is the University of Colorado Law School’s first Black student.

Anderson was born a free person in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1859. During his early childhood, slavery was legal in Missouri.10 Slave-holding states in the Antebellum United States forbid the formal education of Black persons.11 However, records indicate that Anderson received some education in Missouri, while also taking up work as a barber, before he moved to Minneapolis in 1885 at the age of 26. There, he continued his barbering and schooling, graduating high school in 1886. While living in Minneapolis, he met and married his wife Ione Arella Williams.12

The couple moved to 51Թ in early 1892. They purchased multiple lots in town, living near 20th and Pine. Anderson established his barbershop on the corner of 12th (now Broadway) and Pearl Street.13

[1899 Class Photo] (1899) (on file with the University of Colorado Archives).

In 1896, at the age of 37, Anderson enrolled at the University of Colorado Law School, using earnings from his barbershop to pay for tuition and supplies. He attended until1899 and is included in the 1899 class photo. However, the law school faculty did notinclude Anderson in their list of students who should be conferred the Bachelor of Laws degree in May 1899.14 Anderson attempted the bar exam in 1899, but unfortunately did not pass. Around 1900, Anderson and his wife sold their properties and left 51Թ,15 settling in Fort Morgan, Colorado for some time.16 Anderson passed in 1918 from kidney failure.17

Franklin H. Bryant (1907)

Franklin H. Bryant, Black Smiles (1903).

Born in 187718 and troubled from a young age by lung problems,19Franklin Henry Bryant (1907) dedicated himself to his education.20 In 1898, he joined the Seventh Day Adventist Church, where he served as a stenographer for the son of the founders of the Seventh Day Adventists, J. Edson White.21

Bryant traveled across the country with the Adventists. After suffering an injury to or illness in his face, he traveled to Battle Creek, Michigan, for treatment, where the Adventist Sanitarium workers received him poorly. J. Edson White and his brother W.C. White interceded on Bryant’s behalf, and Bryant moved to Nashville to receive medical training.22 Bryant published a collection of poems titled Black Smiles (1903) to help pay for medical school. He briefly attended Northwestern University’s Medical School in Chicago before moving to Denver in 1905 to be closer to his father.23

In Denver, he lectured and performed poetry; and he joined the socialist and labor movements. He first enrolled at the University of Denver’s Law School before transferring to the University of Colorado Law School in 1906, graduating only a year later in 1907.24

Bryant became the third Black attorney to pass the Colorado Bar Exam and went on to establish a firm in Denver. Five months after passing the bar, he was the first and youngest Black attorney to argue a case before the Colorado Supreme Court (55 Colo. 523, 139 P. 1099) - which he posthumously won four years after his untimely death from pneumonia in 1909.25

Black Students at American Law Schools, 1817 - 1968

Harvard Law School opens.

John Mercer Langston is the first known Black applicant to a law school. He applied to a proprietary law school in Ballspa, NY, where he was rejected. He apprenticed with Judge Philemon Bliss in Ohio and was admitted to the bar in 1854.72

The American Civil War.

According to the local Black community in 51Թ, the first Black resident of 51Թ County arrives in 51Թ County, a gold-panner who lived in Left-Hand Canyon.73

The last enslaved people on Anglo-American territory were emancipated on June 19, 1865.

Slavery in the continental United States ended on June 14, 1866 when the Creek Tribe signed a treaty to end slavery.74 75

George Lewis Ruffin is the first known Black lawyer to receive university training. He enrolls in Harvard Law School in 1868.76

Howard University Law School opens as the first viable option for most aspiring Black Lawyers.77

The University of Colorado opens.78 The University never has had a written policy of discrimination based on race or ethnicity.79

The University of Colorado opens their School of Law.

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that racial segregation is not unconstitutional so long as the separate facilities are equal, in Plessy v. Ferguson (163 U.S. 537 (1896)).

Franklin LaVeale Anderson, a Black barber living in 51Թ, attends the University of Colorado Law School. He does not graduate.

Franklin Henry Bryant attends the University of Colorado Law School. He is the first (known) Black graduate of the University of Colorado Law School.

Adele “Della” Parker attends the University of Colorado Law School. She is the first (known) Black woman to attend the law school.

A Black man appears in the Student Bar Association photo in the 1946 yearbook. No names are listed for this photo.

A Black man appears in the 1948 graduating class photo. Thus far, we have not been able to identify him.

Isaac Edward Moore, Jr. attends and graduates from the University of Colorado Law School.

In 1946, in Texas, a Black postal worker80 named Heman Marion Sweatt applied to the University of Texas Law School (UTLS) and was told that there was no place for him because of the color of his skin. Sweatt engaged UTLSina 4-year court battle that culminated in the Sweatt v. Painter Supreme Court decision (339 U.S. 629 (1950)), which challenged the “separate but equal” doctrine. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Sweatt’s favor: Sweatt had a right to enroll at UTLS under the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause because UTLS had superior facilities to the newly and hastily put together Black law school in Texas. In 1950, Sweatt and five other Black classmates enrolled at UTLS. The White students, faculty, and wider community subjected them to cross-burnings, tire-slashings, and slurs. Sweatt withdrew from UTLS in 1951.81 Due to Sweatt’s case and similar cases,82 almost no Black students enrolled in ABA-accredited law schools from the late 1940s to the early 1960s.83

The Association of American Law Schools passesanti-(racial) discrimination objective in 1951.84 The objective remains “unobtained” for many years.85

Clarence Edward Blair attends and graduates from the University of Colorado Law School.

The United States Supreme Court overturns Plessy v. Ferguson in its Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (347 U.S. 483 (1954)), ruling that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional even if the separate facilities are equal.

Six years after the AALS passed its anti-discrimination objective, the chairman for the AALS Committee on Racial Discrimination notes that “the resistant attitudes of those who determine admissions policy are as fixed as ever. . .(and) in the last two years there has been no discernible progress toward the objective [of integrating law schools]."86

By 1964, the AALS Committee of Racial Discrimination notes that no school reports denied admission based on race or color, with several member institutions making ”active efforts to recruit well qualified [Black] students” or admitting their first Black students. Other AALs member schools mention that they ”have given consideration to the possibility of adjusting admission standards to accommodate the few [Black] applicants whose records approach acceptability.” AALS still doubts one of its members would admit a Black applicant “if one should apply.”87

Penfield Wallace Tate II attends and graduates from the University of Colorado Law School.

Civil Rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated on April 4, 1968.

Penfield Wallace Tate II, ‘68 proposes an Affirmative Action program at the University of Colorado to the Vice President for Academic Affairs and Dean of the Faculty. The Vice President funds the program.88

Law school enrollments are at an all-time high, for all races. Affirmative Action programs initiated in law schools across the country.89

Della Parker (ex1914)

[Second Year Law School Class Photo], Coloradan (1913).

Adele “Della” Parker (ex 1914) was born in Rolla, Missouri, to formerly enslaved parents, John Henry and Sedonia (née Blackwell) Parker, circa 1883. During her teenage years, Parker worked as a servant in order to support her younger siblings’ education.26

Around the turn of the century, Parker left Missouri and arrived in Denver, where she began to focus on her own education. She enrolled in the University of Denver’s (DU) Preparatory School andjoined the school’s Adelphian Literary Society, which focused on recitation, writing, musical performance, and debates. She graduated in 1906 and enrolled in DU’s Liberal Arts program, where she studied for one year.27

Parker applied to the University of Colorado Law School in 1911 and found herself a bit of a local celebrity when the local newspapers picked up her story. Fortunately, the press seemed favorable, claiming that Parker made “the superiority of masculinity...no longer self-evident"28 and that she had a “bright future.”29She was a dedicated student and skilled debater while attending the law school.30

Unfortunately, Parker did not finish her law degree as she needed to return home to care for a sick relative. She remained in Missouri, earning a teaching certificate and teaching in the Lincoln School, one of the Black schools in the St. Louis suburbs. By 1930, she owned her own home. Parker retired in the early 1950s and passed away in 1963.31

Isaac E. Moore, Jr. (1949)

Annie Nelson, Prominent African American Denverites [photo, left to right: Lt. Gov. George Brown, Daniel Graves, Isaac E. Moore, Jr.], Denver Public Library Special Collections and Archives, (Aug. 17, 2016), HISTORY.DENVERLIBRARY.ORG, https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/african-american-research-library/prominent-african-american-denverites (last accessed Jan 27, 2025).

Isaac Edward Moore, Jr. (1949) Was born in Colorado Springs on March 20, 1924, to Isaac Edward Moore, Sr. and Kathryn C. Brown,32 a medical doctor and a schoolteacher, respectively. Moore graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School in Los Angeles33 and then completed his undergraduate courses at the University of Southern California.34

Inspired by Thurgood Marshall, he applied to and was accepted at the University of Colorado Law School. The university and law school subjected Moore to severe injustices. The law school faculty all but ignored him.35 The White students refused to share housing with their Black classmates, and the university sided with them, asking Black and other marginalized students to "live with their people.” Effectively forced off campus by the university and faced with a lack of housing options near the law school due to housing discrimination,36 Moore slept in a coal shed for shelter while attending law school.37

Moore graduated in June 194938 and was admitted to practice in September of that year.39 He co-founded the firm Flanigan & Moore with another Black attorney, James C. Flanigan, which brought both lawyers success in and out of court.40 In 1951, he married Dorothy Elizabeth Williams of Phoenix, Arizona, and the couple made their home in the historically Black Five Points neighborhood in Denver.41 Throughout the early 1950s, Moore remained active within the Denver community, including participating in The Top Hatters Social Club42 and serving on the board of a savings firm.43

In 1956, Moore decided to extend his service to the community by running for the Colorado State House of Representatives.44 He served in the Colorado House of Representatives from 1957 – 1960 and then 1964 – 1966. He co-sponsored some of the strongest civil rights laws in the country at the time, including fair housing, open records, fair employment, prison work release, interracial marriage, and the right to counsel (before the federal Miranda decision).45

He retired from his legal practice in 1998 and moved to Memphis, Tennessee, with his second wife Alfreda Ingram Moore. He passed away on October 16, 2003.46

Clarence E. Blair (1956)

Clarence Blair : Treasurer, 1956 Class Photo Composite (1956) (on file with the University of Colorado Law School).

Born in Tyler, Texas47 on October 2, 1929, to farmers Samuel and Florence Blair, Clarence Edward Blair (1956) grew up as the beloved eldest son and grandson.48 During his teenage years, Clarence Blair moved – along with his parents, two sisters, and brother – to Denver.49

Blair graduated from Manual High School in Denver and then attended the 51Թ, where he earned his bachelor’s and master's degrees. He then attended the University of Colorado Denver before returning to his alma mater to earn his law degree in 1956. He passed the Colorado bar exam the same year.50

Blair then moved to California and passed the California bar exam. He served as the Compton City Attorney in Compton, California. In the mid-1980s, he switched to specializing in workers’ compensation, ensuring injured employees received the best outcomes. Additionally, Blair participated in pro bono work in this area.51

He was well-known in both California and Colorado for his “magnetic” personality and signature sheet cakes and barbecues. He passed away on October 22, 2024.52

Penfield W. Tate II (1968)

Penfield “Pen” Wallace Tate II (1968) was the second of 10 children raised by Penfield and Vera Tate in New Pennsylvania, Ohio, for most of his childhood.53 He began working in Massillon Republic Steel Corporation’s mills at age 11 on weekends and on breaks from school until he was 16. After graduating high school in 1949, he attended Kent State University on a full-ride football scholarship,54 studying pre-law and political science.55

His goal was always law school, Tate claimed in a 1974 interview. But “[t]hey don’t give football scholarships to go to law school,” so Tate – who had already participated in ROTC for the pay – decided to join the Army and take advantage of the military’s educational benefits.56 Tate graduated from Kent State in 1952 and earned a commission as a Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army.57

Unfortunately, after his four-year obligatory tour, the U.S. Congress pulled funding for the educational program Tate had hoped to use, forcing him to attend night school and pay out –of pocket. He began his legal education at the Cleveland-Marshall Law School in Cleveland, Ohio, and continued at the John Marshall Law School after being reassigned to Chicago. Though the Army had desegregated in 1949, racial discrimination still impacted Tate’s everyday life: he could not live at a Chicago housing site he supervised because Chicago was segregated, forcing him and his family to stay at a hotel until they could find other accommodations. In another incident, though Tate ran one of the best performing Intercept Ground Equipment sites but received terrible efficiency reports from two Army officials who “made it very clear to [Tate] that they did not think that [B]lack people ought to be officers in the Army.” At the start of the Vietnam War, Tate had had enough and decided to leave the military and apply to law schools in earnest.58

An unintended, long layover left Tate in Colorado in 1967. Renting a car, he decided to visit the two Colorado law schools. He visited 51Թ first and discovered that the Director of Admissions Pearl Colvin was born in New Philadelphia, Ohio – just like him. He arrived at the University of Colorado Law School at 11:30AM and was accepted at 3:00PM.59 He earned his law degree a year later in 1968.60

Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on April 4, 1968, during Tate’s year of study at the University of Colorado Law School. Tate recalled that the Vice President for Academic Affairs and Dean of the Faculty, Thurston Edmund “Ted” Manning, spoke on the radio, lamenting the Civil Rights leader’s death and making a statement about how the university ought to progress civil rights. Tate approached Manning the next day, expressing his disgust with the law school’s lack of historical diversity and pushing theuniversityto start a program to draw in Black students. The vice president told Tate to start the program; and the university funded it to Tate’s specifications. This became the Black and Mexican-American Opportunity Program.61

Tate began his legal career in labor relations and human resources before turning to private practice. He established the general practice firm Tate, Olin, & Tate in 1972 and then Trimble & Tate (now Tate & Tate) in 1977. He focused on labor and employment law, particularly on civil rights discrimination claims.62

[Photo of Penfield W. Tate II] (1968) (on file with the University of Colorado Law School).

Beyond his legal practice, Tate was active in Colorado politics, becoming the chairman for 51Թ’s United Black Action committee and eventually 51Թ city government. He served as the first African American on the 51Թ City Council from 1972 to 1976, and was elected mayor of 51Թ in 1974.63 During his tenure as 51Թ’s mayor, Tate advocated for the LGBT community in 51Թ. He pushed for a Sexual Preference Amendment,64 which would protect individuals from discrimination based on sexual orientation.65 His support for LGBT rights lost him his mayorship at the end of his term. In 1976, he ran a campaign for a seat in the Colorado House of Representatives, which ultimately failed.66

Tate continued his civic involvement as a member of the 51Թ City Housing Authority and Human Relations Committee. He served as a board member for the Colorado Housing and Finance Authority for 15 years and the Denver Metropolitan Major League Baseball Stadium District for three years.67

Tate passed away in 1993.68

Tate is still remembered in 51Թ and the wider Colorado legal community. Following a City Council recommendation, the City of 51Թ renamed the Municipal Building, located at 1777 Broadway, in honor of Penfield Tate II, to celebrate his contributions to the 51Թ community in 2021.69

Concluding Remarks

These six individuals overcame significant prejudices and discrimination in order to attend the University of Colorado Law School. From navigating the consequences of slavery, to supporting their families, to experiencing homelessness and ostracization while attending the law school, their resilience and determination in the face of systemic barriers reflects their unwavering dedication to justice and the pursuit of equality. Their presence as students, and their later work left an indelible mark on the University of Colorado Law School and on the broader legal community.

Students, faculty, and staff at Colorado Law have a strong commitment to creating a welcoming environment for all students across the law school and broader legal profession. The University of Colorado Law School is home to nearly 50 active student organizations, which provide all students a chance to supplement their studies, engage with the community, and create a culture of belonging. These organizations include several affinity groups that allow students to engage with one another around shared legal practice interests, experiences, and identities– contributing to a supportive and dynamic law school community.

Research into the lives of the individuals highlighted is ongoing, as our goal is to create a rich tapestry of the past that acknowledges students of all backgrounds. We also continue to rediscover more early Black alumni, such as a Black man who appears in the 1946 class photo70 and a 1948 graduate.71 If you would like to share information about one of these alumni or another early Black alumnus that was not mentioned here, please reach out to law-communications@colorado.edu.

Rebecca Ciota is a librarian at the University of Colorado Law School. They received degrees from Oberlin College and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. While not doing librarian-things, they enjoy riding horses, reading, and writing.

The author would like to thank David Hays and Mona Lambrecht for their help in identifying and researching Black students at the University of Colorado Law School. And the author would also like to thank Emily Battaglia, Julia Roth, and Lolita Buckner-Inniss for their help editing and crafting this piece. Finally, a thanks to Robyn Munn for proposing the idea.

Endnotes

  1. Clay J. Smith, Emancipation: The Making of the Black Lawyer, 1844 – 1944 (1993).
  2. Don Corbett, Stunted Growth: Assessing the Stagnant Enrollment of African-American Students at the Nation's Law Schools, 18 Temp. Pol. & Civ. Rts. L. Rev. 177 (Fall 2008).
  3. Smith, supra note 1.
  4. Corbett, supra note 4.
  5. William E. Davis, Glory Colorado!: A History of the University of Colorado 1858 – 1963 (1st ed. 1965).
  6. Univ. Colo., The University of Colorado Catalogue (1897).
    Univ. Colo., The University of Colorado Catalogue (1898).
    Univ. Colo., The University of Colorado Catalogue (1899).
  7. Davis, supra note 5.
  8. David M. Hays, The Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Issues at the University of Colorado: 1876 – 2002, Unpublished (on file with the author).
  9. J. Otis Cochran, The Law Schools' Programmatic Approach to Black Students, 17 Howard L.J. 358 (1972), at 361.
  10. Mona Lambrecht, Franklin Leveale Anderson (ex Law 1899) (on file with the Heritage Center at the University of Colorado of 51Թ) (2024).
  11. Corbett, supra note 2.
  12. Lambrecht, Franklin Laveale Anderson, supra note 10.
  13. Id.
  14. Univ. Colo. Sch. L., Meeting of the Faculty of the Colorado School of Law, Held at 51Թ, Colorado, Friday May 26th, 1899 (on file at Univ. Colo. Archives) (May 26, 1899).
  15. Lambrecht, Franklin Laveale Anderson, supra note 10.
  16. United States 1900 Census, Fort Logan. Census, WWW.FAMILYSEARCH.ORG, https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6QVW-KZV?view=index (last accessed Dec. 17, 2024).
  17. Norwalk, Los Angeles, California, [Franklin L. Anderson death certificate], ,
  18. Mona Lambrecht, Franklin Henry Bryant (Law1907) (on file with the Heritage Center at the University of Colorado Heritage Center) (2024).
  19. Kevin L. Morgan, Bryant, Franklin Henry (1877-1909), ENCYCLOPEDIA.ADVENTIST.ORG, (last accessed Dec. 16, 2024).
  20. Mona Lambrecht, Franklin Henry Bryant (Law1907), supra note 18.
  21. Morgan, supra note 19.
  22. Id.
  23. Mona Lambrecht, Franklin Henry Bryant (Law1907), supra note 18.
  24. Id.
  25. Id.
  26. Univ. Colo. 51Թ Alumni Assoc., Hope for a Bright Future, , /alumni/heritage-center/cabinet-curiosities/hope-bright-future (last visited Dec. 3, 2024).
  27. Id.
  28. Sacred Sanctities of Law School Shattered, Silver and Gold (Oct 6, 1911).
  29. [Adele “Della” Parker's enrollment at CU], The Statesman (October 7, 1911).
  30. Univ. Colo. 51Թ Alumni Assoc., supra note 26.
  31. Id.
  32. United States Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT), [Isaac Edward Moore, Jr.], WWW.FAMILYSEARCH.ORG, https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:6K4Z-X1V5 (last accessed Dec. 18, 2024).
  33. Denver Public Library, Isaac Edward Moore Papers (ARL4) (on file at Denver Pub. Library) (1948-2003).
  34. Williams ? Moore Wedding Nuptials High Light of Phoenix Social Season, Colo. Statesman (Jan. 6, 1951).
  35. Denver Public Library, supra note 33.
  36. Hays, supra note 8.
  37. Denver Public Library, supra note 33.
  38. Id.
  39. Colorado Bar Test Passed by 85, Rocky Mountain News (Sept. 10, 1949).
  40. Flanigan & Moore Win Assault Case, Colo. Statesman (May 27, 1950).
    [Judge Knous granted defendant’s motion], Colo. Statesman (Jan. 7, 1951).
    Deputy Prosecutor Slated for Post in Virgin Islands, Rocky Mountain News (Jan. 18, 1951).
    Society, Colo. Statesman (Feb. 10, 1951.)
  41. Williams ? Moore Wedding Nuptials, supra note 34.
  42. Isaac E. Moore, Jr., Society, Colo. Statesman (April 26, 1952).
  43. New Savings Firm, The Rocky Mountain News (Mar. 13, 1955).
  44. Joseph v. Calabrese, 25 Demos Seek 17 Nominations for House Seats, The Rocky Mountain News (Sept. 5, 1956).
  45. Denver Public Library, supra note 34.
  46. Id.
  47. United States 1940 Census, [Samuel Blair, Jr. And Florence Blair], WWW.FAMILYSEARCH.ORG, https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:K43X-1Z4 (last visited Dec. 16, 2024).
  48. Clarence Edward Blair Obituary (on file with the Fairmount Funeral Home, Cemetary & Crematory), , (last visited Dec. 16, 2024).
  49. United States Census Bureau, 1950 Census Search, 1950CENSUS.ARCHIVES.ORG, https://1950census.archives.gov/search/ (last visited Nov. 12, 2024).
  50. Clarence Edward Blair, supra note 48.
  51. Id.
  52. Id.
  53. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., Penfield Wallace Tate II ‘68, WWW.COLORADO.EDU/LAW, /law/2023/02/06/penfield-wallace-tate-ii-68 (last visited Nov. 11, 2024).
  54. Penfield Wallace Tate II, Oral history interview with Penfield Tate II, History Colorado Online Collection, 5008.SYDNEYPLUS.COM, (last accessed Dec. 19, 2024).
  55. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., supra note 53.
  56. Penfield Wallace Tate II, supra note 54.
  57. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., supra note 53.
  58. Penfield Wallace Tate II, supra note 54.
  59. Id.
  60. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., supra note 53.
  61. Penfield Wallace Tate II, supra note 54.
  62. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., supra note 53.
  63. Penfield Wallace Tate II, supra note 54.
  64. Chris Gates, Emotions Control Opinions in Sex Preference Battle, The Royal Banner (April 19, 1974).
  65. 51Թ City Gov’t, Celebrating Diversity and Protecting Our Community Against Discrimination, , (last accessed Dec. 17, 2024).
  66. John W. Muth, Editorial, Out Front (Dec. 2, 1976).
  67. Univ. Colo. L. Sch., supra note 53.
  68. Id.
  69. Jonathan Thornton, City Honors Former Mayor Penfield Tate II by Renaming Municipal Building After Him (Aug. 13, 2021), , (last accessed Jan. 17, 2025).
  70. Univ. Colo., The Coloradan (1946).
  71. Univ. Colo., The Coloradan (1948).
  72. Smith, supra note 1.
  73. Robert Lawrence Brunton, The Negroes of 51Թ, Colorado: A Community Analysis of an Ethnic Minority Group, (1947) M.A. Thesis, Univ. Colo.
  74. The Five Tribes – Cherokee, Chickasaw, Chocktaw, Creek, and Seminole nations – participated in the same system of slavery as theirWhite neighbors.
  75. J. Gordon Hylton, When Did Slavery Really End in the United States, LAW.MARQUETTE.EDU,
  76. Corbett, supra note 2.
  77. Id.
  78. Davis, supra note 5.
  79. Hays, supra note 8.
  80. Texas Originals: Heman Marion Sweatt (December 11, 1912-October 3, 1982), Humanities Texas, ,
  81. William C. Kidder, The Struggle for Access from Sweatt to Grutter: A History of African American, Latino, and American Indian Law School Admissions, 1950-2000, 19 Harv. Blackletter L.J. 1 (2003).
  82. See Florida ex Rel. Hawkins v. Board of Control (350 U.S. 413 (1956)) and Sipuel v. Board of Regents of University of Oklahoma (332 U.S. 631 (1948)).
  83. Kidder, supra note 81.
  84. Standards and Activities of the Association, 1951 AALS Proceedings 1 (1951), at 278.
    Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association, December 28-30, 1951, 1951 AALS Proceedings 1 (1951), at 15-45.
  85. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association, December 28-30, 1957, 1957 AALS Proceedings 7 (1957).
  86. Id.
  87. Committee Reports, 1964 AALS Proceedings 11 (1964).
  88. Penfield Wallace Tate II, supra note 54.
  89. Kidder, supra note 81.